Ethical language is meaningless Essay

Twentieth Century ethics has been highly dominated by linguistics. Ethicists now worked to discover the meanings of terms such as â€Å"good† or â€Å"bad†. This goes beyond normative ethics such as Utilitarianism, Kantian ethics or Virtue ethics but rather looks at the usefulness and meaningfulness of ethical language, known as Meta ethics. It also tries to understand the meaning of terms used in descriptive ethics usually used by sociologists. Ethical language can be divided into cognitive language which is realistic and objective, drawing ethical statements from nature and believing it to be true fact. On the other hand it can be non-Cognitive, ethical language which is anti-realist and subjective. Logical Positivists, Ethical Naturalists and Intuitionists believe ethical statements are true as the have a distinct purpose when using a particular word. Ethical Naturalists and Logical Positivists believe only Cognitive ethical language is true as it describes facts. Whereas Descriptivists and Prescriptivists argue, although when referring to ethical language it may be subjective, it still has significance and has meaning. In this essay I will assess to what extent ethical language is meaningful, arguing it is fair to state all ethical language offers some instruction to society and is therefore meaningful. Ethical Naturalists also argue ethical language has an underlined content of purpose. For example a knife is good if it cuts sharply. Therefore ethical language is showing what terms such as ‘good’ mean through the content of purpose within an ethical statement and is therefore meaningful in informing us on ethical terms such as ‘good’ or ‘bad’. However, ethical Naturalists disregard the complexity of ethical language. This critique is put forward by G.E. Moore, an intuitionist. Intuitionist G.E. Moore whose work is influenced by David Hume argues that it is wrong to derive an ‘ought’ from an ‘is’. Although the world may be in a particular state it doesn’t mean we can draw ethical terms from the natural word. Rather ethical language is sometimes used to discuss supernatural concepts such as God and therefore ethical naturalism‘s argument as to why  ethical language is meaningful is absurd. Moore states we can still ask ‘what is good?’ this leads to an open question argument which displays the ethical naturalist argument as to why ethical language is meaningful may not be fully sufficient. However intuitionists do argue ethical language is meaningful but only due to the fact that intuition is used to conduct ethical statements. Moore uses the Simple Notion to suggest although we cannot fully describe what good is, ‘we just know good is good and that’s the end of the fact’. He uses the analogy of yellow, stating just as we can’t describe yellow without giving examples we can’t describe good without referring to good with examples. It is therefore an indescribable truth. On the other hand A. J. Ayer argues ethical language is merely expressions of ones inclinations, emotions and feelings. He worked closely with the Vienna Circle who brought about Logical Positivism. Due to their belief that ethical language was simply expressions of opinion they stated it is of little use. A J Ayer stated that there were only two types of meaningful statements – analytical statements, ones which contain the preposition with the statement e.g a bachelor is an unmarried man, and synthetic statements, which are those that can be tested by sense experience. Ethical statements do not fit into either of these categories and were therefore largely not meaningful to the Logical Positivists. Many may argue that this is a pessimistic and limited view of ethical language. In addition Hare goes beyond descriptivism, stating ethical statements are actually prescriptive and therefore meaningful as they can act as imperatives. Not only are they saying ‘boo’ to murder or ‘hurrah’ to charity but stating ‘I wouldn’t steal, so neither should you’ or ‘I will give to charity so so should you’. In this sense ethical language is meaningful as not only does it provide universal norms or arouse feeling but place imperatives on what one sees as wrong or right, therefore offering some sense of guidelines to act ethically and morally. However one may argue why should one imperative be chosen over another?

Digital Rights Management

Technological innovation is drastically taking place in almost every field. Experts and engineers put their extraordinary effort to develop software or products that requires some kind of security to protect it from misuse. Digital Rights Management is the one which is used for technologies that controls the use of digital content. With the advancement of Internet and development of digital content, content owners are being impelled into a new arena where they can enhance their rights by using DRM technologies as a way to control the use of their content.The present paper focuses on DRM, argumentative views of various experts on it and effectiveness of DRM in radically changing Hi- tech world. Digital Rights Management (DRM) facilitates copyright holders to achieve value for their works. DRM is used variably in literature. According to Electronic Frontier Foundation, â€Å"Digital rights management technologies are aimed at increasing the kinds and/or scope of control that rights-ho lders can assert over their intellectual property assets.†DRM allows the copyright holder to control the ways consumer’s access and use the holder's work once the work is made available in a digital format. By controlling the access, a right holder is capable to offers an exclusively competent business model and his work will be protected from infringing uses. It is not possible for DRM at its own level to realize these aims because it is susceptible to the hackers, which is able to avoid DRM safeguards. That’s why, law enforcement is required to avert from hackers.These steps will strengthen DRM technology (Christopher D. Kruger, pg: 281). The focus of the first generation of Digital Rights Management (DRM) was mainly on security and encryption as a way of working out the problem of unauthorized copying of the content. It was performed by locking the content and to limit its distribution to only those who make payment. In the second-generation of DRM, major step s to cover the description, identification, trading, protection, monitoring and tracking of all forms of rights procedures over both tangible and intangible assets.DRM deals with all rights and not only the rights applicable to permissions over digital content. There are two significant architectures which must reflect on while designing and implementing DRM systems. The Functional Architecture is the first. This covers the high-level modules or components of the DRM system that together provide a management of rights till the end user. The Information Architecture is the second critical architecture. This covers the modeling of the entities within a DRM system as well as their relationships.In digital rights management, the licensing authority issues to the DRM licensee a certificate and a public/private key pair for use in service. The client will sign the certificate with the licensing authority private key and send it to the content server along with the public key. The content server then verifies the certificate and thereby authenticates the client. The server also checks the certificate with the list of revocation and if so, the client will not be able to receive or decrypt content. There are two algorithms used in signing.The Windows DRM for Network Devices and HDMI and the Open Mobile Alliance use the RSA algorithm. An Elliptic Curve algorithm being much lighter, are used in Windows DRM for Mobile Devices and DTCP. There are number of companies holding patents, which cause some concern for adopters and have delayed the introduction of ECC to wider use in DRM. Once the authentication of a device is complete and it is determined that it has the valid license authority certificate, then in a DRM design, the last step is to decrypt content – the symmetric cipher key. This is obviously very important.Consumers just can not break their head to manage a key for every song or video that they have licensed under a DRM scheme, nor would the owner of a br and new product wish to enter 40 hex digits into the new console before using it. It is to be noted that one tremendously imperative feature of DRM security design is the processes by which secret DRM values are stored. While these consumer electronic products can be accessed by consumers, hackers will pry the design looking for susceptibilities. It is better to use the key storage on chip non-volatile memory.The major problems with this approach are NVM memory is not available in every process, especially the advanced technology nodes, the license fees for NVM are fairly high and last of all the programming of the secret values in off-shore ODMs may encounter a security issue as the secret values are in plaintext (Al Hawtin, Embedded Technology Journal). DRM has many advantages such as one can make more investment in digital content. Digital copies are perfect no matter how many copies are to be made. Large corporations are not the only creators of content.The Internet provides low -cost distribution network globally from which thousands of software producers get advantage. Strong DRM ensures a revenue stream at lower rate. Furthermore, good DRM means more legal free media, and lower prices. (John Carroll, 2002ZDNet). Even though DRM has many positive aspects and it is legally protected, it is always a matter of argument. Debate over the issues of fair use and DRM at the 12th annual Computers, Freedom and Privacy (CFP) conference in San Francisco summarizes that it is too early in this period of technological modernization to begin locking down digital content.Peter Jaszi, law professor at American University's Washington College of Law referred to copyright holders' attempts to keep tight control over their digital content, such as some record companies' moves to distribute DRM-protected CDs that cannot be played on more than one device. But even more threatening to fair-use advocates is proposed legislation introduced by Senator Ernest â€Å"Fritz† Ho llings, which aims to incorporate a built-in copyright protection measure in all consumer digital devices. Most speakers at CFP established that DRM was not the solution to the copyright difficulty.Many of the advocates agreed that DRM would be more successful in harmonizing the rights of user and copyright holders than would be legislation. Stefan Bechtold, a Stanford Law School fellow and author of a book on digital rights management, argued that even though DRM can slow down fair use and free speech, the technology is more progressive than law. It develops speedily and can be installed on an international level. According to Microsoft Security Architect Barbara Fox, DRM technologies make easy to secure the content and setting rules for consumer use but it is much more intricate to guarantee that users have fair use of that content.Further he noted that copyright law is vague when it comes to fair-use rights and DRM would be incapable to settle on whether a user should be able to use content under certain state of affairs (CNN). Even so many controversies, various industries like the entertainment industry, led primarily by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) and the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), are dynamically chasing DRM-friendly policy initiatives through federal legislation and regulations, the courts and standards organizations.Music and movies have grabbed most of the headlines around digital rights management (DRM). The â€Å"killer app† for enterprise DRM is document management, primarily for purposes of regulatory compliance. The relevant regulations include the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLBA) and the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOA). These laws require that the confidentiality and/or integrity of certain types of documents be protected (E.John Sebes, Mark Stamp, Pg: 52). DRM is computer code that can be embedded in music and video files to dictate how th ese files are used. The best-known example is the music Apple Computer sells at its iTunes Music Store. Using a DRM system it invented called FairPlay, Apple has engineered its songs, at the insistence of the record companies, so that they can be played only on a maximum of five computers, which means that one can burn only seven CDs containing the same play list of purchased tracks.In fact, obtaining relatively liberal DRM rules from the labels was the key to Apple's success in selling music. But some other uses of DRM technology are not so benevolent. Some CD buyers are discovering to their dismay that new releases from certain record companies contain DRM code that makes it difficult to copy the songs to their computers, where millions prefer to keep their music.People who buy online music in Microsoft's Windows Media format too often run into the DRM error message â€Å"unable to obtain license† when try to transfer the songs to a music player. The theft of intellectual p roperty on the Internet is a real problem. Millions of copies of songs, TV shows and movies are being distributed over the Internet by people who have no legal right to do so, robbing media companies and artists of rightful compensation for their work (WALTER S.MOSSBERG, 2005). The premier provider of smart mobile content retailing solutions, announced the U. S. Patents and Trademarks Office has issued the company a patent in the area of mobile content and applications Digital Rights Management (DRM). To sum up, DRM standardization is now taking place in a number of open businesses. Digital Rights Management is rising as an alarming new confronts, and it is necessary for DRM systems to provide interoperable services.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode Essay Research Paper Asynchronous

Asynchronous Transfer Mode Essay, Research Paper Asynchronous Transfer Mode Asynchronous Transfer Mode: Asynchronous Transfer Mode By Gene Bandy State Technical Institute Asynchronous Transfer Mode: Asynchronous Transportation Mode ( ATM ) is a # 8220 ; high-velocity transmittal protocol in which information blocks are broken into little cells that are transmitted separately and perchance via different paths in a mode similar to packet-switching engineering # 8221 ; . In other words, it is a signifier of informations transmittal that allows voice, picture and informations to be sent along the same web. In the yesteryear, voice, picture and informations were transferred utilizing separate webs: voice traffic over the phone, picture over overseas telegram webs and informations over an internetwork. ATM is a cell- shift and multiplexing engineering designed to be a fast, general intent transportation manner for multiple services. It is asynchronous because cells are non transferred sporadically. Cells are given clip slots on demand. What seperates ATMs is its capableness to back up multimedia and incorporate these services along with informations over a signal type of transmittal method. The ATM cell is the informations unit used to convey the information. The information is broken into 48-byte informations packages for transmittal. Five bytes of control informations are appended to the 48-byte informations packages, organizing a 53-byte transmittal frame. These frames are so transmitted to the receiver, where the 5-byte control informations ( or Heading ) is removed and the message is put back together for usage by the system In an ATM web, all informations is switched and multiplexed in these cells. Each ATM cell sent into the web contains turn toing information that achieves a practical connexion from inception to finish. All cells are so transferred, in sequence, over this practical connexion. Asynchronous Transportation Manner: The heading includes information about the contents of the warhead and about the method of transmittal. The heading contains merely 5 eights. It was shortened every bit much as possible, incorporating the lower limit reference and command maps for a on the job system. The subdivisions in the heading are a series of spots which are recognized and processed by the ATM bed. Sections included in the heading are Generic Flow Control ( GFC ) , Cell Loss Priority ( CLP ) , Payload Type, Header Error Control, the Virtual Path Identifier and the Virtual Channel Identifier. The Header is the information field that contains the gross bearing warhead. A GFC is a 4-bit field intended to back up simple executions of multiplexing. The GFC is intended to back up flow control. The CLP spot is a 1-bit field that indicates the loss precedence of an single cell. Cells are assigned a binary codification to indicate either high or low precedence. A cell loss precedence value of zero indicates that the cell contents are of high precedence. High precedence cells are least likely to be discarded during periods of congestion. Those cells with a high precedence will merely be discarded after all low precedence cells have been discarded. Cell loss is more damaging to informations transmittal than it is to voice or picture transmittal. Cell loss in informations transmittal consequences in corrupted files. The Payload Type subdivision is a 3-bit field that discriminates between a cell warhead transporting user informations or one transporting direction information. User information is informations of any traffic type that has been packaged into an ATM cell. An illustration of direction Asynchronous Transfer Mode: information is information involved in call set-up. This subdivision besides notes whether the cell experienced congestion. The Header Error Control field consists of mistake look intoing spots. The Header Error Control field is an 8-bit Cyclic Redundancy Code to cheque for individual spot and some multi-bit mistakes. It provides error checking of the heading for usage by the Transmission Convergence ( TC ) sublayer of the Physical bed. The Virtual Path Identifier in the cell heading identifies a package of one or more VCs ( practical channels ) .The Birtual Channel Identifier ( VCI ) in the cel heading identifies a individual VC on a paricular Virtual Path. The way is divided into channels. The pick of the 48 byte warhead was made as a via media to suit multiple signifiers of traffic. The two campaigner warhead sizes were ab initio 32 and 64 bytes. The size of the cell has and consequence on both transmittal efficiency and packetization hold. A long warhead is more efficient than a little warhead since, with a big warhead, more informations can be transmitted per cell with the same sum of operating expense ( heading ) . For informations transmittal entirely, a big warhead is desirable. The longer the warhead is, nevertheless, the more clip is exhausted packaging. Certain traffic types are sensitive to clip such as voice. If packaging clip is excessively long, and the cells are non sent off rapidly, the quality of the voice transmittal will diminish. The 48 byte warhead size was the consequence of a via media that had to be reached between the 64 byte warhead which would supply efficient informations transportation but hapless quality voice and the 32 byte warhead which could Asynchronous Transportation Manner: transmit voice without reverberation but provided inefficient informations transportation. The 48 byte warhead size allows ATM to transport multiple signifiers of traffic. Both time-sensitive traffic ( voice ) and time-insensitive traffic can be carried with the best possible balance between efficiency and packetization hold. ATM Advantages: 1. ATM supports voice, picture and informations leting multimedia and assorted services over a individual web. 2. High development possible, works with bing, bequest engineerings 3. Supply the best multiple service support 4. Supports delay near to that of dedicated services 5. QoS ( Quality of Service ) classes 6. Supply the capableness to back up both connection-oriented and connectionless traffic utilizing AALs ( ATM Adaptation Layers ) 7. Able to utilize all common physical transmittal waies ( DS1, SONET ) 8. Cable can be twisted-pair, coaxal or fiberoptic 9. Ability to link LAN to Wan 10. Bequest LAN emulation 11. Efficient bandwidth usage by statistical multiplexing 12. Scalability 13. Higher sum bandwidth 14. High velocity Mbps and perchance Gbps Asynchronous Transfer Manner: ATM disadvantages: 1. Flexible to efficiency # 8217 ; s disbursal, at present, for any one application it is normally possible to happen a more optimized 2. Technology 3. Cost, although it will diminish with clip 4. New client premises hardware and package are required 5. Competition from other engineerings -100 Mbps FDDI, 100 Mbps Ethernet and fast ethernet 6. Soon the applications that can profit from ATM such as multimedia are rare 7. The delay, with all the promise of ATM # 8217 ; s capablenesss many inside informations are still in the criterions procedure Asynchronous Transfer Mode Bibliography Mention: 1. Freeman, Roger L. ( ( 1996 ) . Telecommunication System Engineering: Third Edition. City: New York, John Wiley A ; Sons, INC. 2. Spohn, Darren L. ( 1997 ) . Data Network Design. City: McGraw-Hill Company. 3. Taylor, D. Edgar ( 1995 ) . The McGraw-Hill Internetworking Handbook. City: New York, McGraw-Hill Company. Internet: 1. Quigley, David ( 1997 ) . A Technical View of ATMs. [ on-line ] , Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.mathcs.carleton.edu/students/quigleyd/atmtech.html.

The Concepts of HR Management in Japan Research Paper

The Concepts of HR Management in Japan - Research Paper Example HR managers, for instance, might be foreseeing the organization's enduring hiring needs based on demands of company growth and proficiency requirements. Or they might be increasing organization-wide human resource information systems that trail all of the information concerning employees that used to be stored on paper in file drawers. Or they can be benchmarking company HR practices against industry competitors (Konrad, A.M., and Linnehan, F., 1999). All these are big, protracted jobs, and they do not leave HR managers many resources sagging to deal with the fundamental tasks (e.g., hiring, firing, and training etc.) that used to be the restricted area of the HR department. In Japan, there are different concepts concerning the continued viability of concepts of HRM, shushinkoyo is among that popular concept in large Japanese firms. Kobayashi of Aoyama Gakuin University believes that the three foundations of Japanese human resource management shushinkoyo, nenko joretsu, and kigyo-betsu rodokumiai (long-term employment, the seniority system, and enterprise-based unions) are crumbling and that there are most important changes ahead (Kilburn, 1994:45 ). Kobayashi points out that while major corporations can still retain much of the substance of long-term employment by off-loading excess employees to subsidiaries or associates, few now see this as more than a stopgap solution. Noguchi of Hitotsubashi University states that white-collar employees require to get used to the idea that they can lose their jobs (Rosario, 1993:22 ). Noguchi believes that it is a long-term trend that will not go away when the economy picks up. It is not just employers who are having subsequent thoughts about shushinkoyo. More and more employees themselves have an aspiration to seek new opportunities outside their present company. In Japan, a term borrowed from English 'u-turn' refers to the trend of leaving big city jobs to go to smaller towns so as to enjoy a better lifestyle or freedom from the constraints of working in a large company. The number of employees opting for the 'u-turn' saw a considerable increase from the mid-eighties. Fundamental HR activities in Japan are progressively more being decentralized and handed off to managers like line managers working front-and-center. That is a good thing, for the most part. After all, you are the one who is working with your employees' day in and day out. Pucik and Hatvany (1983) summarize Japanese HRM strategies as (1) the development of an internal labor market, (2) company philosophies that stress strong ties between the company and employees and (3) an exhaustive socialization process that emphasizes co-operation and teamwork. The first strategy, the development of an internal labor market, requires the practice of shushinkoyo. As the Japanese firm recruits fresh graduates with the intention of employing them during the foremost portion of their productive lives. The subsequent strategy is implemented by taking advantage of collectivist tendencies and creating a strong bond between the employee and the company through socialization and the way benefits are structured. The third strategy is achieved by the encouragement of a group-oriented mentality.

Povert delibrating impacts on U.S urban communitiesa Essay

Povert delibrating impacts on U.S urban communitiesa - Essay Example For example, The World Bank sets poverty consumption levels as an individual living on less the $2.00 a day, this is a world total. In the U.S., the poverty level is listed in the table below provided by the Federal Register: Even though the U.S has a strong economy in comparison to other countries that does not mean much, as a significant percentage of the population is struggling to survive. The United States has the largest national economy in the world, with a GDP for 2005 of 12.41 trillion dollars. In this mixed economy, corporations and other private firms make the vast majority of microeconomic decisions, and governments prefer to take a minimal role in the domestic economy. Because of this, the U.S. has a small social safety net, and business firms in the U.S. face considerably less regulation than those in many other nations (Facts About the United States, Worldfacts). On the global level, poverty has been estimated that in  2001, 1.1 billion people had consumption levels below $1 a day and 2.7 billion lived on less than $2 a day (Economics of Social Issues, 2006, page, 3). At the same time, the Census Bureau released its latest estimate of the fraction of Americans living below the poverty li ne. It was higher in 2001 (11.7 percent) than in 1973 (11.1 percent). The official measure indicates that a greater portion of families and children live in poverty in America today than three decades ago. Poverty alleviation dominates the global agenda in the 21st century, as is featured in the Millenium Development Goals of the United Nation. The effect of poverty on the society varies across the urban and rural areas as it does across countries. It is estimated that, with urbanization, nearly 40 percent of the world’s population live in cities and by 2020, the growth in urban population will be faster in low-income countries than in high-income ones, leading to an even higher incidence of urban poor

Business and Political Trends in Japan and China Research Paper

Business and Political Trends in Japan and China - Research Paper Example   Among the biggest complaints that Japan’s trading partners have made over the years is that its domestic market is not as competitive as it should be. This assertion has been found to be true especially when one considers that the Japanese government is partly responsible for this lack of competition within its market. The Japanese government has adopted such hindering policies as the imposition of high tariffs as well as heavy regulations which have ensured that it is extremely difficult for other countries to conduct business within Japan (Mito & Sakurada, 2003). In addition, the extremely concentrated nature of the Japanese market has led to a situation where it is very difficult for companies from other countries to place their products within it which can effectively compete with domestic products; a factor which is essentially discouraging for foreign investors. It is mainly because of the abovementioned situations that it has become necessary for the Japanese govern ment to put in place those policies which not only encourage the deregulation of its markets but also works towards the development of stronger antitrust laws that aid all the businesses that operate within its economy. While it has been argued that the Japanese market is concentrated, this situation has come to be alleviated over the years as it has been reported that when compared to the market of the United States, the Japanese market has become less concentrated while that of the latter has essentially remained the same.   

Marketing Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 5

Marketing Plan - Essay Example has more distinctive products than McDonalds; it has fewer items on the menu, as it focuses more on individual products. It should be highlighted that McDonalds also use traditional print, electronic and radio media followed by internet and new media for publicity and promotion. The company also initiated a promotional campaign named â€Å"I’m Lovin’ it†, sponsored Olympic athletes, host charitable events, Social media etc. to entice maximum customers towards its stores. KFC (Kentucky Fried Chicken) is an American international food seller that has established more than 15,000 KFC outlets across 109 countries and territories around the world. Indeed, the business serves an estimated 12 million customers each day at its stores. The business is an important competitor of Carl’s Jr. because it offers various similar products. The company has an advertising budget of over $1 billion and sales revenue of $11 billion in 2009 that shows its financial strength and brand acceptance among fast food lovers. In addition, KFC also utilizes all traditional and social media channels. KFC focuses on Product and Market Development through induction of new recipes and food products (such as fiery wings) in its portfolio. Indeed, it launched promotional campaigns including free vouchers, Family Feast Combo, free gifts, KFC buckets, KFC cricket promotion etc. to tempt customers towards its stores. (KFC.com) Hungry Jack is a subsidiary of Burger King Incorporation and it is operational in Australia since 1971. The company has strong brand recognition and establishment in Australia with over 300 stores in 2010. The franchise is unique in a way that it offers a complete range of breakfast, hamburgers, chicken meals, desserts, drinks, sides / salad and kids’ meals to its valued customers. Indeed, the company advertises heavily on electronic media to lure food freaks. Indeed, Hungry Jacks advertises heavily on electronic media for sales promotion campaigns. In addition, the

Profits and Supply and Demand Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Profits and Supply and Demand - Essay Example The products consist of casual clothing of the 21st Century. It entails stylish watches, T-shirts, Leather bracelets, stylish shirts, rings, body con dresses for women and necklaces all in varieties and with the latest fashion. The products we offer are luxury fashions for both genders. The luxury items are mainly reliant on the need for the customer gain what they see and feel from the use of luxurious items. The idea is to make the consumer feel expensive and look great as well as bearing the consumers emotional speculations ‘I want people to notice me’, ‘this is a fifty dollar item’. The products supply depends on the consumer’s preferences and order basis for items above fifty dollars. The items distribution is through an online platform to allow placing orders, expressing interests and even a blog on fashion style. The product features include leather items and precious metals such as gold, silver and diamonds. Other resources needed include an online platform worth $1000, five retail outlets spread across the region targeting people in love with fashion and value. These outlets will stock of $2000 valued items each with varying stocks depending on the market flow and location. The other resources include annual marketing costs approximated to be 30% of the initial financing. These will cater for social media, print media such as magazines and other affiliate marketing options. The products supply is from wholesale outlets as well as imported, depending on the item location and perceived value of the products. The other sources of the items include buying used items from events that use them for a one-time event as well as from individuals with higher preferences. The initial financing is $14,300 to cater for startup costs. During the first year of operation, sales are targeted at $10,000, with an explicit cost of $6,000 that gives revenue of $4,000 (Boundless, 2015). The profits of the company are expected to grow with

The laws regarding homicide are an unsatisfactory collection of rules Essay

The laws regarding homicide are an unsatisfactory collection of rules which are unclear and which do not set appropriate leve - Essay Example This paper’s aim is to point out some of the major problems and errors that is contained in the homicide law. The first section will be looking at the definition of the homicide and also some of the legislative areas that is covered under the homicide law. The second section will entirely deal with the defects and problems in the homicide law. The third area will briefly look at the legal framework of the said areas and the suggested statutory reforms that can be implemented on the homicide law in Britain. When looking at the word ‘homicide’ in this essay the terms of reference will be in reference to the relationship between the law of murder and the law relating to homicide especially on manslaughter. The definition of murder can be borrowed from classic definition of Sir Edward Coke in 1797: â€Å"Murder is when a man of a sound memory, and of the age of discretion, unlawfully killeth within any country of the realm any reasonable creature in rerum natura unde r the King’s peace, with malice aforethought, either expressed by the party or implied by law, so as the party wounded, or hurt, etc. die of the wound or hurt, etc. within a year and a day after the same.†2 For the purposes of convenience in this paper, the definition of homicide will imply the unlawful killing of a human being by another human being. Under homicide offences, murder is the most serious of all but its reform cannot be reflected upon seclusion without the inclusion from the other homicide offences. Under Actus Reus there are four ways in which it can be implemented. 1. UNLAWFUL KILLING When the killing is unlawful there are certain defences that will make the killing lawful for example in the case of self defence. Should the jury find the killing was under self defence; then the killing will be lawful. This will only be possible if the act or omission of the defendant is thought to be legal cause of the victim’s death. Therefore the causation in su ch a situation must be established. 2. HUMAN BEING Should the killing occur then it must be the killing of a human being who was living. 3. QUEEN'S PEACE This means that the killing of an enemy during the course of war, under the Queen’s peace, the killing will not be classified as murder. 4. DEATH WITHIN A YEAR AND A DAY The killing ought to have been committed within the year and a day for it to be placed under homicide in particular.3 1. MALICE AFORETHOUGHT The mens rea in case of murder is usually malice aforethought. R v Moloney [1985] AC 905 4 (a) Intention to kill When it comes to murder there is always a specific intention for this crime to be committed. The intention might vary accordingly for example in this context the intention might be direct intention or even oblique intention. The direct intention implies that the situation of the defendant desired death in the first place while under oblique intent it means that the death of the defendant was foreseen as not c ertain although the defendant did not desire the death. The most recent authority on intention is: R v Woollin (1998) The Times, July 23.5 (b) Intention to cause Grievous Bodily Harm (g.b.h) An intention to cause grievous bodily harm is evidenced when there is willingness for acceptance of a substantial risk that the victim in this case might actually die: R v Vickers [1957] 2 QB 664: 6 In England and Wales the law being used

Moratorium on Deep-Water Drilling For Retail Gas Prices Coursework

Moratorium on Deep-Water Drilling For Retail Gas Prices - Coursework Example Marathon’s Product Process The production process in MPC takes place in three phases, i.e. refining, transporting, and marketing. The refining phase is executed with the assistance of sis-plant refinery network system. Crude oils gathered from the supply markets of Midwest and various parts of Southeast are refined in these plants with the capacity of around 1,142,000 barrels per day (bpd) accumulatively. Notably, two different types of crude oils are refined in these plants, i.e. sweet crude oils (46% approx) and sour crude oils (54% approx) which are collected from national as well as international suppliers. These refineries are located in six different parts of the continent, i.e. Louisiana, Kentucky, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio and Texas. The refineries are not only different in terms of their location but are also diverse in terms of sizes and their strengths (as cited in Marathon Petroleum Corporation, 2011). ... In this context, the biggest limitation of the company shall be recognized as the integrated management system implemented in its refining phase of production. This indicates the refining phase of production process to be open for greatest number of efficiency improvements. It is due to the fact that all the six plants tend to be different from each other to a large extent in terms of operations, size and strengths. Thus, it is likely to become quite challenging to manage the vivid operations through the implementation of an integrated plan. 2.0. Relationship between the Retail Price of Gasoline and World Demand for Crude Oil Experts have stated that the retail price of gasoline and the price for crude oil are asymmetrically related to each other. To be illustrated, the retail price of gasoline is examined to rise substantially with the rise in the price of crude oil. However, the retail price of gasoline tends to fall leisurely when the price for crude oil substantially minimizes. This presents an asymmetric relationship between the two fac tors (Balke, Brown, & Yucel, 1998). On the similar context, the price elasticity of demand for crude oil is termed to be least, i.e. with a significant rise in the crude oil prices; it is likely that the demand for the product will diminish but not extensively (Cooper, 2003). Therefore, it can be stated that the global demand for the crude oil and retail prices of gasoline are asymmetrically related. This indicates that fall in demand due to the price increase of crude oil will have an inverse impact on the retail price of gasoline resulting in substantial price hike of the commodity.

Popular Culture Essay Essay Example for Free

Popular Culture Essay Essay Although there are some parts of popular culture that make it into high culture, popular culture is transient; it describes the way of life, attitudes, and passions of mostly younger people. These views usually change as they age and gain real life experience. This essay will cover culture, popular culture, three major trends in popular American culture and how popular American culture affects personal decision making. Culture is the united design of social understanding, faith, and conduct that hinges on the ability to search for knowledge and spread it to future generations. It is also the ordinary principles, collective customs, and measurable qualities of ethnic, religious, or a community. (Oxford English Dictionary, 2012) â€Å"The soul takes nothing with her to the next world but her education and her culture.† (Plato, 2012) Popular cultural is the understanding and actions of a particular set of people in a particular era. It is also television shows (like Reality TV) or marketable goods (like sagging pants, oversized shirts, hats designed to be worn backward, etc.) made for, or targeted at particular set of people. (Oxford English Dictionary, 2012) In this student’s opinion popular culture comes and goes and only defines an era not its people. Three major trends in today’s society are a digital society, sexual explicitness, and a general lack of personal responsibility. Americans live in a digital society that relies on technology more than personal relationships. We do a great deal of shopping and purchasing online and have become a society where the sexier it is the better. Almost everything on television, in magazines, and even our music have become permeated with sexual overtones and innuendos. Finally, we have a dilemma with the lack of personal responsibility in our country; recently there have been several lawsuits against fast food restaurants for making people fat. Americans need to accept responsibility for our own actions; it was not the fast food restaurants that made us fat, rather it was our decision to eat there that did. Popular American culture affects personal decision making various ways, whether it is the type of food we buy, the music we listen to, electronics we purchase, and even the people we date. In this student’s opinion the Internet is the single most influential popular culture influencer of our time. We use it for everything from dating, shopping, exploring, studying, traveling, relaxing, and so much more. Popular culture  affects us in almost every decision we make. Although there are some parts of popular culture that makes it into high culture, popular culture is transient. This essay covered culture, popular culture, three major trends in popular American culture and how popular American culture affects personal decision making. â€Å"Culture is made of everything that enables man to maintain, enhance or transform without weakening it, the ideal image of himself that it has inherited.† (Malraux, 2001) References Malraux, A. (2001, May 2). UCL Discours recteur Marcel Crochet. Retrieved from http://sites.uclouvain.be/actualites/dhc2001/drecteur.html Oxford English Dictionary. (2012, June). Retrieved from http://www.oed.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/view/Entry/45746?rskey=BftxmAresult=1isAdvanced=false#eid Plato. (2012, June 4). Here, There, and Everywhere. Retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/here-there-and-everywhere/201206/whats-after-30-quotes-the-afterlife

The Causes Of Increase In Housing Price

The Causes Of Increase In Housing Price House is one of the important elements in basic human needs. However, one will consider the price of a house before purchasing. It is important to gather information before purchasing a house because it is a long term investment. A house must be comfortable to stay in. However, we cannot deny the fact that the housing price today is not the same as price in the last few decades. 1.2 Problem Statement Over the past few decades, the housing price has shown increments as times goes by. It is no doubt that the longer the period of time the higher the price of housing. This is a big issue to be taken into consideration. It is considered an important issue because house is one of the important basic human needs. Therefore, being concerned about the housing price is a must and the factors that contribute to the increase of housing price need to be determined. 1.3 Research Objectives The following are the objectives of this research : 1. To determine the causes of increase in housing price. 2. To evaluate the price of housing in the future. 3. To identify the effect of increase in housing price. 1.4 Scope Limitations of the Study In order to gather the information for this research, I have gathered some reliable information through the internet. I have chosen few journals as important additional information. Next, secondary data will be used in order to fulfill the objectives of this research. The limitation of this study is that the best method to be used is hard to choose. There are few methods to be chosen in order to determine the price of housing. In addition, the time given to complete this is limited as many other things need to be taken into consideration. 1.5 Significance of the Problem By doing research on the housing price, the factors that lead to the increase of housing price can be determined. The housing price in the future can be forecasted as well. The important of doing this research on the housing price is that, it will give positive impact to the government. It can help the government to predict or estimates the price of housing in the future. These can wider the awareness of the price of housing which is now in high rate. This research will also can be an advantage for the housing developers in determining the housing price by identification of the factors that lead to the housing price estimation. Moreover, this research is also important to individual who will purchase house in the future. This will give awareness to the individual regarding the housing price and help them to figure out the best decision in purchasing a house. 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Literature review is one of the important elements in research in order to gain broader ideas. According to Uma Sekaran (2006), literature review can be defined as a broad documentation review by which published and unpublished work from secondary data in the areas of a particular interest to the researcher. It discusses the importance of the subject, the type of theory or method used in the research and as well as to provide with the background and history of a particular area. Furthermore, there are 3 steps in the literature review process. Firstly is to identify the various material and access, secondly to gather the relevant information, and thirdly to write up the literature review. A good research should consist of eight important elements including purposiveness, validity, replicability, generalisability, objectivity, reliability, testability, and able to create a new thing or better known as rigor. We can gather literature review sources through books, reports, monograph, the sis, conference proceeding, working papers, and the most commonly used by many is the journal research articles. 2.2 Literature Review The Determination of Housing Price House is one of the important elements in basic human needs. People need a house to stay away from danger, hot weather, rainy day and as well as a place to stay calm. As long as people can fill the comfort of living under a roof then it is called a house. However, the things that matter is that the affordability of a person to purchase a house. Some people can afford a house that is really comfortable to stay in and some not. People who are called the rich and famous can afford a house that is almost called a heaven and some can only lives in an ordinary but comfortable house. But it doesnà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢t matter how our house may look like because the price of house is what that matter. We can see that the housing price is increasing as the time goes by. This may be an important area to look upon because more or less it could affect the economic level of a country. Therefore, a housing price can be defined as the rate of payment that one has to pay in order to purc hase a house and for sure there are several factors that lead to housing price determination. In my own point of view, I believe that the increment of a housing price is due to the price increment in the raw material. Many may have similar idea but after looking into 10 journals as references for my propose topic, I have found out several more important variables that leads to the factors of housing price determination. There are few number of knowledgeable individual turned up and able to find the contributing factors in determination of housing price. One who has studied using an empirical analysis has shown that income (demography trends) and nominal interest rates are the key explanatory factors in housing price. On the other hand, the equity returns may also have been an influential factor in the determination o housing price (Pages Maza, 2003). In other studies shown that, the empirical approach, panel unit root test, panel co-integration, and error correction model were applied in the research. The result is similar in which the level of income and interest rate were the main factors. But it was tested in a different method whereby the current level of income and interest rates determine how much an individual can borrow from financial institutions in order to purchase a house. This decision of how much the borrower can borrow from the bank or financial institutions is one of a way to determine the level of house price (McQuinn Oà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢Rielly, 2007). For example, the higher the interest rate, the higher the price of housing. However, another different point of view can be found in the study of Yazgi Dokmeci (2007), in which, applied the multiple regression model and it was found that the most important factor affecting the housing prices is the size of the floor area. The second and third most effective factors are the road surface ratio and the floor area, and fourth factor is the distance of housing to the seashore. This means, the bigger the size of floor the more money a purchaser will have to pay. This study is obviously different from the previous study. It looked upon the geographical area. The studies of Hiebert Roma (2010) by using the empirical and regression analysis have shown that even though a particular location is associated with facilities, population differences across cities influenced more. Therefore, even if a particular location is fully facilitated, people will still prefer living among a population. Other studies that used the new quarterly regional panel data set shown that out of 14 regions, there were 11 regions that have the major impacts in term of housing services and amenity values. The price expectations that is predictable contribute to the increased of housing price. Thus, it was found that the price of housing is influenced by the regional economic activity, the regional housing stock and the user cost of capital (Grimes et al, 2004). In another different study, correlation and multiple regression analysis was applied by a Malaysian namely Tan. The study shown that the Malaysiansà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ per capita income, unemployment rate, total loans to housing and KLSE Composite Index plays important role in the movement of Malaysian house price. This means, the economic and financial factors were identified as applicable in determining the demand and supply of housing units. In a study of Allen et al (2006), by using the empirical analysis, new house price, union wages, issuance of building permit contributes in the housing price rate. According to Yan et al (2010), an empirical analysis and the error correction model error correction shown that land supply has a major impact on house price fluctuations while demand factors such as user costs, income and residential mortgage loan have greater influences. In the long run, the price is influenced by the land supply and the financial system. However, in the short run, the changes in land supply and financial system will then effect on the user costs, income, and residential mortgage loan. To add more, the demand factors which consist of the user cost, income, and residential mortgage loan is found to give greater impact in the price fluctuations of housing price. Again in other studies of McMillen (2003) using the Fourier repeat sales approach, it was found that income and population can influenced the prices of house. However, he then found out that people with higher income moved into the older part of the area in Chicago city due to the increasing housing cost. In another study of Hilbers et al (2008), the empirical analysis shown that user costs, demographic (age, gender, income) factors and output gives impact in the determination of housing price. It was found that the most influential factors were the income and the user costs. After went through the journals on housing, it helps to indentify and considered the contributing factors in the determination of housing price. I have found out several factors that contribute in the determination of housing price. Those factors I have found includes the interest rate, income, geographical area, population, unemployment rate, housing loan, KLSE Composite Index, user cost and as well the economic activity and regional housing stock. But, the most common factors are the interest rate, income, population, and user costs. In another way, it also helps to figure out the type of analysis or framework that had already been used as a method in research. As an advantage, it will help to determine which method is the best choice to be used in the research. Therefore, when the method to be used is already discovered, it will enable researcher to formulate suitable theory in order to test or formulate hypotheses. 2.3 Conceptual Framework Interest rate Income Housing Price User costs Land supply Financial system Population Conceptual framework or better known as the Theoretical framework is a conceptual model of how one came up with a theory or to make a logical sense of the relationship among the identified factors of a particular problem. It consists of the independent variables on the left side while the dependent variable on the right side as the above sketches of theoretical framework. The independent variable can be defined as one lends itself. On the other hand, the dependent variable does not lend itself. In addition, variables refer to anything that differ values. The independent variables consist of interest rate, income, user costs, land supply, financial system, and population. Interest rate refers to the interest rate on bank loans or land value. When interest rate increases, the house price will increase too. Income is one important element in determining the housing price, whereby, income may determine that a house can be afforded or not. User costs refer to the cost by a particular person. It plays an important role because the when user cost doesnà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢t exist then it is not easy to determine the price of house. Land supply is also an important factor whereby a land needed an approval before building a house on it. Financial system refers to the housing loan from bank, residential mortgage loan or the conditions of economic of a particular country. Population refers to the people living in an area. More population means demand on housing will increasing and therefore leads to supply of housing. On the other hand, the dependent variable only consist of one variable in which the housing price. The housing price depends on the any changes in the independent variables. Small changes in one of the independents variable will give effect in the determination of housing price. 2.4 Conclusion In conclusion, it is no doubt that there are various factors that contributes in the determination of housing price. From the journals, we can gain some ideas on what are the important variables that need to be included in determining the housing price. Therefore, the best method can be selected and data can be analyzed in order to find the solution on the problem. The hypothesis can be tested as well. 3.0 DATA METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction In order to conduct a research on determination of housing price, secondary data will be used. Secondary data can be gained through the data base. Moreover, the methods for this research is used to analyzed the data and later fulfill the objectives of the research. 3.2 Data, Population, Sampling Method In order to conduct this research, the secondary data will be used. The data is gathered through the World Bank and Bank Reserve of New Zealand. The population of this research will be the country New Zealand. This is because this research will focus in the housing price determination in New Zealand. According to Uma Sekaran (2006), population can be defined as the whole group of people or things in a research area that a researcher need to investigate. For instance, if a researcher wants to investigate the awareness of health in a specific firm, then the population will be all the employees in that specific firm, let say Dell Company. Therefore, on the other hand, the population for this research is the country New Zealand. This is due to the determination of housing price will be studied based on the New Zealand data. Sampling is the process whereby the researcher selects the specific number from the population to be analyzed. Sampling is important because it will save time and cost. It is divided into probability sampling and non probability sampling. 3.3 Analysis of Data In order to analyze the data, unit root test will be used. The unit root test is useful in order to determine the best forecasting model to be used in the research. It is also useful to test the availability of the time series data whether it is stationary or non stationary by using the auto regression model. Moreover, the time series analysis will then be used in order to determine the price of housing in the future. This will also includes the ARIMA model in order forecast the housing price in the future. 3.4 Hypothesis Development Hypothesis can be referred as a statement of two or more variables that is testable. It consists of the if-then statement. For instance, if the price of commodity increases, then income will increase as well. It can also be written in other way, whereby, there is a relationship between both price of commodity and income. Hypothesis are classified into two types, whereby, the directional and the non directional hypothesis. The null and alternate hypothesis can either be rejected or accepted in accordance with the result from the test of the variables. 3.5 Summary The data and methodology are two elements that need to be taken into consideration before conducting a research. It is better to make sure the availability of data before one proceeds to do research. The population and sampling need to be firstly indentified. After that, the methods to be used must be proper and a wise choice in order to gain more accurate result. When data is already gathered and analyzed, hypothesis can then be tested.

Content Analysis of Web-based Norovirus Education Materials

Content Analysis of Web-based Norovirus Education Materials Content Analysis of Web-based Norovirus Education Materials Targeting Consumers Who Prepare and Handle Food: An Assessment of Alignment and Readability Hillary Evansa Morgan Gettya Cortney M. Leonea Michael Finneyb Angela Frasera* aDepartment of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA bDepartment of Mathematical Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA ABSTRACT word count Huma noroviruses sicken 19-21 million people in the U.S. each year, suggesting the need for education. The World Wide Web is a readily accessible source of information about how to prevent a norovirus infection but at present the accuracy and readability of materials targeting consumers is unknown. The aim of our study was to evaluate the alignment and readability of web-based norovirus education materials targeting consumers using CDC guidelines and Microsoft Word readability formulas. Our search yielded 60 artifacts. Most did not address duration of handwashing (83%), use of hand sanitizers (83%), type of drying devices (92%), or avoidance of bare-hand contact with ready-to-eat foods (97%). Less than half (n=29) recommended minimizing contact with sick persons. Two-thirds of the artifacts (n=40) also did not mention the recommended concentration of sodium hypochlorite (bleach) solution to be used to disinfect surfaces contaminated with Noroviruses. The mean Flesch Reading Ease scor e was 47.75 (score of >70 is easy to read), and the mean Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level was 10.36 so documents were written at a 10th grade level. The alignment and readability of web-based educational materials about Noroviruses must be improved as knowledge is a prerequisite to application of behaviors that can prevent one from becoming infected with Noroviruses. Key words: Huma noroviruses, content analysis, consumer education, food safety, readability Content Analysis of Web-based Norovirus Education Materials Targeting Consumers who Prepare and Handle Food: An Assessment of Alignment and Readability INTRODUCTION Worldwide, noroviruses are the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis. In the U.S., an estimated 21 million individuals (1 in 14) are sickened each year by this group of viruses resulting in $777 million in healthcare costs (Hall et al., 2013). Most reported outbreaks are attributed to person-to-person contact (69%) followed by the consumption of contaminated food (23%) making noroviruses the most common cause of foodborne disease (58% of cases) in the U.S. ((Hall, Wikswo, Pringle, Gould, Parashar, 2014; Scallan et al, 2011). Results from a nationally representative survey of 1051 U.S. adults revealed that consumers are not aware of noroviruses and have limited knowledge about how to prevent an infection. Forty-seven percent of respondents reported awareness of noroviruses, and 85% had heard of the terms cruise ship virus, the stomach bug, or the stomach flu, which are commonly used to describe norovirusess (Cates, Kosa, Brophy, Hall, Fraser, 2015). Less than one-third (341) correctly answered 50% or more of the 22 true-and-false questions, suggesting consumers have limited knowledge on how to prevent a norovirus infection. These findings support the need to provide consumers with accurate and complete information about noroviruses as knowledge is a prerequisite to implementation of a behavior (DiClemente et al., 1989; Fisher Fisher, 1992). The World Wide Web (hereafter referred to as the Web) is one way to reach consumers with information about how to prevent a norovirus infection. Eighty-seven percent (87%) of U.S. adults use the internet, and of those, 72 percent use the Web to seek health information (Pew Research Center, 2014). While the internet has accelerated the speed and spread of information, it also has a downside allowing the dissemination and diffusion of information without checks and balances, peer review, and/or fact checking. Three studies that evaluated health information available online reported a lack of quality information characterized by accuracy of content and/or appropriate design and usability (Berland et al., 2001; Scullard, Peacock, Davies, 2010; Irwin et al., 2011). Moreover, a systematic review of medical information further supported the above-mentioned authors conclusions that there is a lack of high-quality sites on the Web that offer complete and accurate information on various heal th topics (Eysenbach, Powell, Kuss, Sa, 2002). One problem with inaccurate or misleading health information being so accessible on the Web is that the user of this information might implement recommendations that have no effect on preventing the targeted disease or condition or even worse one might implement recommendations that cause harm (Ilic, 2010). In addition to providing accurate and complete information, it is also important to determine if recommendations, or changes that might become recommendations in the near future, are relevant and practical under real-world conditions. Another problem is the readability of the text. If the text is not easy to read its usability is greatly diminished. To illustrate how wide ranging this problem could be one needs to simply read the National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL), released in 2006 by the U.S. Department of Education. The authors report that 30 million adults struggle with basic reading tasks, which represents nearly 10% of the U.S. population (Kutner, Greenburg, Jin, Paulsen, 2006). Within the context of health information, Kessels (2003) pointed out that 40-80% of information provided to patients by health professionals is forgotten immediately not only because terminology is too difficult to understand but often too much information is presented at one time leading to poor recall. One conclusion is that when text is too difficult to read, the reader could become frustrated hence they stop reading, hence the purpose of the materials is not achieved improving knowledge. Using the results of a readability formula is also recommended by experts to guide the development of written work as it is recommended to write documents for U.S. adults at the 7th grade level and documents about health, medicine, or safety at the 5th grade level (DuBay, 2004). As an assessment tool, one of the several dozen readability formulas are useful and convenient but must be employed with caution. These formulas determine the grade level demand of specific written information based on an analysis of sentence structure and word length. But, readability does not necessarily guarantee comprehension, which is the degree to which one understands what they have read (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2010). Assessing comprehension is a much more complex task, which is why readability is more commonly used as a general indicator of how easy a document is to read. Therefore, we assert that if consumer education materials are aligned with evidence-based guidance documents and are easy to read, the reader is more likely to engage in behaviors known to prevent Noroviruses. Thus, the aim of our study was to evaluate the alignment and readability of Noroviruses consumer education materials available on the Web using evidence-based guidance documents and Microsoft Word readability formulas. Two research questions guided our study: 1) Are noroviruses materials targeting consumers who handle food aligned with the three prevention strategies for noroviruses recommended in CDC guidance documents? and 2) Are materials written at the recommended grade level for health-related documents (5th grade level)? Our study findings can be used to inform the revision or creation of consumer education materials that focus on preventing a norovirus infection. METHODS To be included in the sample, eligible educational materials (referred to as artifacts hereafter) were published between January 1, 2011 and May 23, 2013 and: 1) target adult consumers, 2) pertain to preparing food in the home, and 3) be available via Advanced Search of Google.com. The start date of our search was chosen because in January 2011, Scallan et al. (2011) reported that Noroviruses causes 58% of foodborne disease in the U.S. We excluded artifacts directed toward children and those formatted as blogs, news articles, theses, dissertations, research articles, Wikipedia entries, question/answer sites, forums, and continuing education training materials. We conducted a Google.com Advanced Search using the following search string: Norovirus AND food handling AND food preparation. Food-related terms were chosen as we assumed this would narrow our findings to artifacts that address preventing Norovirus infections related to food preparation in the home. Artifacts were sorted by re levance, and two team members screened each artifact based on inclusion criteria. All eligible artifacts were downloaded as Portable Document Format (PDF) files or HyperText Markup Language (HTML) files. A coding manual comprised of 71 items divided into four topic areas was created. The topic areas included: 1) identifying information, 2) format (including readability statistics), 3) content (including food safety hazards), and 4) prevention strategies. The items in Table 1 assess three prevention strategies outlined in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidelines for preventing and managing a norovirus infection: 1) hand hygiene, 2) exclusion and isolation of sick individuals, and 3) environmental sanitation (Hall et al., 2011). While these guidelines were designed for use in health care and not home settings, at the time of the analysis we believed and continue to believe they were the best source of evidence-based information to prevent norovirus infections. A corresponding SurveyMonkey ® (Survey Monkey Inc., Paolo Alto, CA) instrument served as the coding sheet. Four trained coders independently conducted a pilot-test of the coding manual. Inconsistencies or ambiguities found in the manual during piloting were corrected before analysis began. Two trained coders then independently reviewed each artifact. Responses were entered into the SurveyMonkey ® instrument. All responses were exported to an Excel spreadsheet. A third coder reconciled disagreements between coders. Based on alignment, each artifact was assigned a total score, and sub-scores across the three disease management guidance documents were assessed: hand hygiene, isolation and exclusion of sick persons, and environmental sanitation. The maximum possible quality scores for each topic area were 7, 2, and 5, respectively. Response frequencies as well as mean scores, standard deviations, and ranges were calculated using SAS 9.3 (SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC). To assess readability, we used two formulas Flesch Reading Ease and Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level both available in Microsoft Word. Flesch Reading Ease scores range from 0-100, with a lower score indicating that a document is more difficult to read than one with a higher score. A score of 70 or above is classified as easy and is written at the grade school level. A score of 60 to 70 is standard and is written at the high school level. A score of 60 or below is difficult. The Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level uses mean sentence and word length to determine grade level between grades 3 and 12 (DAlessandro, Kingsley, Johnson-West, 2001). RESULTS Our Google Advanced Search yielded 826 results. After opening and viewing the first 292 results (sorted by relevance) the following was displayed on the results listing screen: In order to show you the most relevant results, we have omitted some entries very similar to the 292 already displayed. If you like, you can repeat the search with the omitted results included. We repeated the search and determined all results were duplicates of those already viewed. These 292 results were screened using our three eligibility criteria and yielded 74 artifacts which were then downloaded. After a second screening, 14 artifacts were removed due to page unavailability, duplicity, or wrong target audience. A total of 60 artifacts were included and analyzed. Research Question 1: Alignment with Prevention Strategies The total mean score across all three prevention strategies was low 5.2 of 14 points suggesting artifacts were not aligned with CDC guidance documents (Table 2). All (N=60; 100%) artifacts mentioned at least one of the seven components of hand hygiene we assessed but the mean sub-score for hand hygiene was low, 2.3 of 7 points (SD=0.77). Most artifacts (83%) did not address length of handwashing, type of drying devices (92%), avoidance of bare-hand contact with ready-to-eat foods (97%), or use of hand sanitizers (83%). One artifact stated that hand sanitizers were an acceptable alternative to hand washing. Of the artifacts that mentioned exclusion and isolation of sick individuals (78%), the mean score was 1.2 of 2. In nearly all artifacts (72%) sick individuals were discouraged from preparing food for others, but 48% recommended minimizing contact with sick persons. Less than half (48%) addressed at least one aspect of environmental sanitation with the mean quality score 1.7 of 5. Research Question 2: Readability The mean Flesch Reading Ease for our sample was 47.6, indicating artifacts were difficult to read as the score is th grade) for health-related materials (DAlessandro, Kingsley, Johnson-West, 2001). DISCUSSION Knowledge is an underlying construct in many health behavior models necessary for one to take informed action, such as implementing strategies to prevent a norovirus infection. So it is reasonable to assert that if one does not have accurate and complete information about these strategies, then one cannot engage in necessary behaviors, defeating the purpose of consumer education. In addition to providing accurate and complete information, the information must also be practical and presented in a manner that is easy to read to increase the likelihood that the recommendations will be implemented. For these reasons, we analyzed consumer-targeted materials available on the Web to determine if existing materials need to be revised or new materials created as we believe consumer education is critical to preventing norovirus infections. In our analysis, we found information was omitted and/or inconsistent with the CDC guidelines. For example, many artifacts did not address length of hand washing, use of hand sanitizers, type of drying devices, and avoidance of bare-hand contact with ready-to-eat foods. While many discouraged preparing food, less than half recommended minimize contact with sick persons. Furthermore, disinfection was frequently mentioned but the recommended concentration of sodium hypochlorite (bleach) solution to be used to disinfect surfaces contaminated with noroviruses was not. And, none addressed the clean up of vomit and fecal matter. It is through the proper implementation of the three prevention strategies (hand hygiene, exclusion and isolation of sick individuals, and environmental sanitation) that we begin to reduce the burden of illness attributed to noroviruses. One obvious reason for the incompleteness and/or omission of information is the creators of materials in our sample might not have known about the CDC prevention guidelines. The guidelines were published in March 2011 in Morbidity Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) which is in the public domain, but MMWR might not be a known or commonly used source of information for those who author consumer education materials. As a result, information to guide development of materials came from other sources, for which the evidence base might be unknown or possibly incorrect. To illustrate, it is well known that an effective hand wash can disrupt transmission of noroviruses with effective hand wash defined as applying hand soap to hands then using friction (rubbing hands together) for a sufficient time (Michaels et al., 2002). While a scrub time of 10-20 seconds is commonly recommended as sufficient by the CDC and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA, 2013; Hall et al., 2011), three laboratory s tudies report longer wash times are needed to remove microorganisms (Ojajà ¤rvi, 1980; Fuls et al., 2008; Jensen, Danyluk, Harris, and Schaffner, 2015). To further complicate matters, some experts question the evidence base for scrubbing hands for 10-20 seconds suggesting an even shorter time (Bloomfield et al, FILL IN). These various positions on length of a handwash illustrates the importance of creating (and subsequently using) evidence-based guidelines to inform development of consumer education materials as recommendations cannot be based on one or two published studies. In health care, clinicians commonly use clinical evidence-based practice guidelines, recommendations systematically developed by panels of experts who have access to the available evidence and an understanding of the clinical problem and research methods as these clinicians, just like food safety educators, might not have the expertise to consider the quality of the evidence. Thus, evidence-based guidelines such as those prepared by the CDC should underpin consumer education efforts about preventing norovirus infections. However, these guidelines should be routinely reviewed and updated as even within the CDC guidelines there are gaps in information as the present evidence base to inform norovirus prevention strategies is incomplete. When educators are faced with incomplete information they might use whatever information is available, even if it is not grounded in science, or and simply ignore omit details (Kardes et al., 2008; Sanbonmatsu, Kardes, Herr, 1992; Simmons Lynch, 1991). One clear example of this centers around vomit and fecal matter clean up, which none of the reviewed materials addressed. To disrupt the transmission of noroviruses, vomitus and feces must be properly cleaned up. But, how far out one needs to disinfect an area to eliminate noroviruses is unknown as the evidence to support a geographic radius is inconclusive. The only published evidence we have suggests that vomit can be deposited up to 25 feet from its point source but these findings are based on one epidemiological stud y and not a well-designed laboratory-controlled study (Booth, 2014). Moreover, even when the evidence base is good, sometimes information that is presented is not complete. Case in point, many materials recommended using sodium hypochlorite (bleach) solutions to treat surfaces, which is correct, but most did not state a concentration of the disinfection solution. Norovirus is a hardy pathogen that resists most disinfection strategies and persists in the environment for long periods, possibly weeks (give citation) illustrating the importance of using a chlorine solution at the proper concentration (Doultree, Druce, Birch, Marshall, 1999; Gulati, Allwood, Hedberg, Goyal, 2001; Jimenez Chiang 2006; Belliot, Lavaux, Souihel, Agnello, Pothier, 2008). One explanation for this lack of detail could be that some authors presented motivational messages, which tend to be briefer than procedural messages. While motivation is important, alone it is not sufficient because one can be motivated to enact a behavior but do it wrong which is why consumers must have accurate as well as complete information. It is important to note that we did not evaluate the messaging approach as this was beyond the scope of this study but an analysis of messaging approach should be considered in future analyses of materials. Another potential problem is that in the absence of consumer-targeted prevention strategies, government regulations are often used as a proxy. This appears to be a sensible approach as the presumption is that most regulations are grounded in science. However, one must exercise caution as regulations might not always based on the most current evidence given the often lengthy adoption process. Take for example the use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers as an alternative for hand washing, which the U.S. Food Code prohibits, and which most artifacts in our sample did not mention. In 2002 the CDC released Guidelines for Hand Hygiene in Healthcare but in May 2003 the FDA prepared a written response, clearly stating the CDC guidelines could not be applied to foodservice establishments (FDA, 2003). The underlying logic was that (1) pathogens commonly transmitted by hands in health-care settings differ from those transmitted in foodservice settings; (2) the use of alcohol-based hand rubs in pla ce of hand-washing has not been shown to reduce important foodborne pathogens on food worker hands; and (3) the types and levels of soil on the hands of health care workers differ from that on the hands of foodservice and retail food handlers. Another concern was that while alcohol-based hand sanitizers have been demonstrated to be effective for many pathogens, their efficacy has not been consistently demonstrated for norovirus. It is unclear how much published evidence has been used to support these recommendations as much has been learned about hand hygiene in the last 20 years. In reality, information suggests that some hand sanitizer formulations may be somewhat effective while others are not. Obviously, this situation is complex, and in the interest of providing a clear message, it may be unclear whether to include recommendations regarding alcohol-based hand sanitizers or to rely on government regulations. The conservative approach would be to omit the recommendation; whereas, some authors may decide to provide the knowledge under the impression that recommending some hand cleaning behavior is better than no recommendation. Some guidelines might be viewed by educators as impractical or unnecessary to implement in a home setting. An example of this is not handling food when sick, which was mentioned but minimizing contact with sick persons was addressed less frequently. This is a significant oversight as many people do not realize that noroviruses are transferred via the fecal-oral route (i.e., associated with contacting persons, contaminated surfaces, and food) (CATES ARTICLE). In a regulated food facility, workers cannot work while ill to minimize sickening others as well as contaminating surfaces and food. This recommendation might not be possible in a home setting as one probably cannot isolate themselves from others in the household as well as they might be the primary food preparer. This illustrates why it is important to analyze not only the accuracy and completeness of information but also its practicality. Along with lack of alignment, the artifacts in our sample were also not easy to read written at a high school grade level and not at the 5th grade level as suggested. Our study findings are consistent with a study conducted by Badarudeen and Sanjeev (2010) who concluded that in a health-care setting patient education materials were often too difficult to read and could not be comprehended by a substantial portion of the adult U.S. population. Therefore, even when information is accurate, if a reader cannot understand it, they cannot act on it. Educational materials are only as beneficial as the knowledge gained as a result of being able to read them. Limitations Due to the ever changing nature of the Web, artifacts sampled during the study could change as time progresses so new materials that might be better aligned with CDC guidance documents and that are easy to read might be available. Likewise, knowledge evolves: in late 2014, the CDC published on their website five messages to help consumers prevent a norovirus infections: 1) practice proper hand hygiene; 2) take care in the kitchen; 3) do not prepare food while infected; 4) clean and disinfect contaminated surfaces; and 5) wash laundry thoroughly (CDC, 2015). However, coding and analysis had already been completed so kitchen and laundry practices were not assessed, demonstrating the challenge of evaluating web-based health messages. Further, to analyze the readability of the artifacts in our sample, we used two readability formulas available through Microsoft Word. This method is widely used, but also not comprehensive, as it only considers factors such as word and sentence length so d oes not take into consideration comprehension. Future research should also be done to assess materials using the CDC Clear Communication Index, which is a set of 20 items that can be used to develop as well as assess public communication products (CDC, 2014a). The 20 items in the Index build on and expand plain language techniques described in the Federal Plain Language Guidance documents (Plain Language Action and Information Network, 2011). CONCLUSION At present, there still is a need to revise and possibly create materials that are accurate, complete, practical, and easy to read. Consumer education, if approached properly, could help reduce the burden of illness attributed to noroviruses, the number one cause of acute gastroenteritis and foodborne disease. To be effective, consumer-targeted materials must be aligned with evidence-based guidelines that carefully assess the practicality and necessity of the recommendations in a home environment. While government regulations are sometimes used as a proxy for recommendations to be applied in a home setting, one must use caution in doing so as the regulatory provisions might not be grounded in the most current science or might be impractical under home conditions. Most importantly, evidence-based guidelines also need to be periodically as the evidence base to inform practices continues to grow. Finally, the readability of the materials must be evaluated and REFERENCE THE CDC CLEAR COM MUNICATION INDEX. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was funded through a grant from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Institute of Food and Agriculture, Agriculture and Food Research Initiative, Building Capacity to Control Viral Foodborne Disease: A Translational, Multidisciplinary Approach, Grant No. 2011-68003-30395. REFERENCES Abad, F. X., Pintà ³, R. M., Bosch, A.(1994). Survival of enteric viruses on environmental fomites. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 60(10), p. 3704-3710. Atmar, R. L., Opekun, A. R., Gilger, M. A., Estes, M. K., Crawford, S. E., Neill, F. H., Ramani, S., Hill, H., Ferreira, J., Graham, D. Y. (2014).Determination of the 50% human infectious dose for Norwalk virus. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 209, 1016-1022. Badarudeen, S. Sabharwal, S. (2010). Assessing Readability of Patient Education Materials: Current Role in Orthopaedics. Clinical Orthopedic Related Research, 468(1):2572-2580. Barker, J., Vipond, I. B., Bloomfield, S. F. (2004).Effects of cleaning and disinfection in reducing the spread of norovirus contamination via environmental surfaces. Journal of Hospital Infection,58(1), 42-49. Belliot, G., Lavaux, A., Souihel, D., Agnello, D., Pothier, P. (2008). Use of murine norovirus as a surrogate to evaluate resistance of huma norovirus to disinfectants. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 74(10), 3315-3318. Berland, G. K., Elliott, M. N., Morales, L. S., Algazy, J. I., Kravitz, R. L., Broder, M. S., Kanouse, D. E., Muà ±oz, J. A., Puyol, J.-A., Lara, M., Watkins, K. E., Yang, H., McGlynn, E. A. (2001). Health information on the internet: accessibility, quality, and readability in English and Spanish. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285(20), 2612-2621. Bloomfield, S. F., Aiello, A. E., Cookson, B., OBoyle, C., Larson, E. L. (2007). The effectiveness of hand hygiene procedures in reducing the risks of infections in home and community settings including handwashing and alcohol-based hand sanitizers. American Journal of Infection Control, 35(10), S27-S64. Booth, C. M. (2014). Vomiting Larry: a simulated vomiting system for assessing environmental contamination from projectile vomiting related to norovirus infection. Journal of Infection Prevention, 15(5), 176-180. Cates, S. C., Kosa, K. M., Brophy, J. E., Hall, A. J., Fraser, A. (2015). Consumer education needed on norovirus prevention and control: findings from a nationally representative survey of U.S. adults. Journal of Food Protection, 78(3), 484-490. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2015). Preventing Norovirus Infection. Accessed 29 October 2015. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/norovirus/preventing-infection.html Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014a). The CDC clear communication index. Accessed 27 August 2015. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ccindex/ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014b). Norovirus. Accessed 27 August 2015. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/norovirus/ DAlessandro, D. M., Kingsley, P., Johnson-West, J. (2001).The readability of pediatric patient education materials on the World Wide Web. Archives of Pediatrics Adolescent Medicine, 155(7), 807-812. DiClemente, R. J., Pies, C. A., Stoller, E. J., Straits, C., Olivia, G. E., Haskin, J., Rutherford, G. W. (1989). Evaluation of school-based AIDS education curricula in San Francisco.The Journal of Sex Research, 26(2), 188-198. Doultree, J. C., Druce, J. D., Birch, C. J., Bowden, D. S., Marshall, J. A. (1999). Inactivation of feline calicivirus, a Norwalk virus surrogate. Journal of Hospital Infection, 41, 51-57. DuBay, W. H. (2004).The principles of readability. Costa Mesa, CA: Impact Information. Eysenbach, G., Powell, J., Kuss, O., Sa, E.-R. (2002). Empirical studies assessing the quality of health information for consumers on the World Wide Web: a systematic review. Journal of the American Medical Association, 287(20), 2691-2700. Fisher, J. D., Fisher, W. A. (1992). Changing AIDS risk behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 3, 455-474. Fuls, J. L., Rodgers, N. D.,Fischler, G. E., Howard, J. M., Patel, M.,Weidner, P. L., Duran, M. H. (2008). Alternative hand contamination technique to compare the activities of antimicrobial and non-antimicrobial soaps under different test conditions. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 74(12), 3739-3744. Girard, M., Ngazoa, S., Mattison, K., Jean, J. (2010).Attachment of noroviruses to stainless steel and their inactivation, using household disinfectants. Journal of Food Protection, 73(2), 400-404. Gulati, B. R., Allwood, P. B., Hedberg, C. W., Goyal, S. M. (2001). Efficacy of commonly used disinfectants for the inactivation of calicivirus on strawberry, lettuce, and a food-contact surface. Journal of Food Protection, 64(9), 1430-1434. Hall, A. J., Lopman, B. A., Payne, D. C., Patel, M. M., Gastaà ±aduy, P. A., Vinjà ©, J., Parashar, U. D. (2013). Norovirus disease in the United States. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 19(8), 1198-1205. Hall, A. J., Vinjà ©, J., Lopman, B., Park, G. W., Yen, C., Gregoricus, N., Parashar, U. (2011). Updated norovirus outbreak management and disease prevention guidance documents. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 60(3), 1-15. Hall, A. J., Wikswo, M. E., Pringle, K., Gould, L. H., Parashar, U. D. (2014). Vital signs: foodborne norovirus outbreaks- United States, 2009-2012.Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 63(22), 491-495. Huang, C., Ma, W., Stack, S. (2012). The hygienic efficacy of different hand-drying methods: a review of the evidence. Mayo Clini

Summary of William Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet :: Free Essay Writer

Summary of Romeo and Juliet Scene 1 Act 1:Scene one opens with a fight on the streets of Verona between servants from the Montague and Capulet households. While attempting to stop the fight, Benvolio is drawn in by Tybalt. The heads of both houses (Montague and Capulet) arrive on the scene. Prince Escalus arrives and stops the fight, forbidding any further brawls. Montague and his wife discuss Romeo’s strange behavior with Benvolio and ask him why he is acting that way. They find Romeo and have Benvolio talk to him. Benvolio advises him to forget Rosaline, but Romeo refuses. Scene 2 Act 1:Paris asked Capulet if it would be all right if he could marry Juliet. Capulet is not sure because Juliet is so young, however he ends up agreeing with Paris. Capulet invites Paris to the feast. He sends off the guest list with a servant, that can’t read the names. He meets Romeo and Benvolio and asks them for help. Romeo noticed that the list had Rosaline on it, so he dared to go to the feast to meet with her. Benvolio again suggests to Romeo that he should forget Rosaline, he again refuses. Scene 3 Act 1:Lady Capulet talks to Juliet about marriage then tells her about Paris’ proposal. When lady Capulet tells Juliet that Paris will be at the feast, Juliet doesn’t act too excited. Nurse responds for Juliet with something that Lady Capulet wanted to hear. Scene 4 Act 1:Romeo, Benvolio, Mercutio, and other members of the Montague house go to the Capulet feast. They are all wearing masks to hide their identity. They talk it over and decide to stay for one dance. Because Romeo is still in love with Rosaline, Mercutio teases him about being a hopeless lover. Mercutio then starts a long tale about how fairies deliver dreams to humans as they sleep. Scene 5 Act 1:Romeo, Mercutio, Benvolio, and the servants arrive at the feast in masks. Capulet is there at the door to greet them. Capulet talks to his cousin about how long ago it was when they took part in a masque. Romeo sees Julies and falls in love with her immediately. Tybalt recognizes Romeo’s voice and is ready to fight. Capulet stops Tybalt and tells him to ignore Romeo for now and try to keep the peace. Romeo and Juliet keep talking and end up kissing, Nurse runs in the middle of them and tells Juliet to go find her mother immediately.

The Other Nature Essay -- Writing Writer Literature Papers

The Other Nature Early in her exploration of man's soul, Joyce Carol Oates discovers a fundamental truth while writing about the character of Stavrogin in Dostoyevsky's The Possessed-that as part of his inevitable fall, man violates "nature" in so complete a way as to separate himself from the only forces that can save him. This theme dealing with the Fall of man is a constant thread that weaves itself through most of Oates' essays, the corruption by various internal and external forces and the tragedy that results from man's blindness to his own nature and to what would provide him salvation. Oates' power lies in her ability to delve deep within the personalities of the writers, the characters they create, and the powerful themes buried deep in the work's soul. She applies psychological concepts and archetypes in order to explore the implications brought about by the similarities and differences in the characters' thoughts and actions. She reaches her most thought-provoking insights by connecting parallel motifs across a wide spectrum of literature and constantly leaps from one generalization to the next causing the reader to wonder how she has come to the fascinating and brilliant conclusions presented in Contraries. By examining the Fall of man, she discovers how self-awareness and material preoccupations lead to a corruption of the "natural" self. Later, the discussion of tragedy and transcendence in essays about King Lear and Nostromo reveals the fundamental importance of women-as saviors of the natural world and representatives of salvation for men. Women are the und erlying focus of her essays; the archetypes and roles they adhere to and defy as literary characters shape the way she perceives the female. Ultimat... ... subjection is presented as grisly and mean. Perhaps this shift of focus from the sublime to the obscene is necessary to bring more clearly into focus the longstanding female archetype and provide us with the strength to intervene in such deep-running cultural patterns. Oates certainly does not preach at us, and she never tells us exactly what to do. But reading Connie's story, and reading over Oates's shoulder as she sees the archetype that created it, we are pushed, at least, to read the stories we encounter to find and reflect on the conflicts of human nature they reveal. Works Cited Oates, Joyce Carol. Contraries: Essays. New York: Oxford UP, 1981. "Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been?" 1966. Celestial Timepiece: Joyce Carol Oates Archive. Ed. Randy Souther. Dec. 1996. San Francisco. 10 Dec. 2000. <http://storm.usfca.edu/ ~southerr/wgoing.html>

Go Ask Alice Essay -- essays research papers

Go Ask Alice! Alice is fifteen, white, middle, class. She diets, she dates. She loves Roger but the most time he doesn’t notice her. If she would ever sleep with a boy she would sleep with him. Alice hates her look. She wants to be pretty and slim. Lately she loses fascination about all things. School is boring and she doesn’t even go to parties. Her parents want to move. Her Dad is invited to become the Dean of the Political Science at - . Alice is happy and is not hard for her to leave the old school. But she misses her old house and her grandparents who she calls gramp and gran. Alice has a brother called Tim and a sister Alexandria. The two are younger than Alice. At her new school it is horrible for her. Nobody speaks to her the first days. but her brother and sister like the new school. Finally she finds a friend at school. Her name is Gerda, but Alice’s mother and father don’t like her. Alice doesn’t feel happy in her family. She hates his sister and her brother more than she loves them. Tim is intolerable and her mother is constantly Peking at her. Alice gets to know Beth Baum. Beth is Jewish and her father is a doctor. Her mother nags a lot. Alice’s parents like Beth, because she is pretty nice. In the holidays Beth goes on a summer camp for six weeks and Alice stays at her grans. One day she meets Jill Peters and she invites her for a party. Alice doesn’t like taking drugs. She wants to stop it...

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Current Issues: Gangs 2011, n. p. Copyright @ 2011 ReferencePoint Press, Website: www. referencepointpress. com. P. O. Box 27779, San Diego, CA 92198. Phone: 858-618-1314. Fax: 858-618-1730. All rights reserved. Current Issues: Gangs By Peggy J. Parks Contents Gangs at a Glance Overview How Serious a Problem Are Gangs? Primary Source Quotes Facts and Illustrations Why Do Young People Join Gangs? Primary Source Quotes Facts and Illustrations Can People Leave the Gang Life Behind? Primary Source Quotes Facts and Illustrations Can Gang Violence Be Stopped? Primary Source QuotesFacts and Illustrations Key People and Advocacy Groups Chronology Related Organizations For Further Research Source Notes About the Author Gangs at a Glance Gangs and Gang Members The U. S. Department of Justice estimates that more than 20,000 gangs with a total of about 1 million members are criminally active in the United States. Gang Migration Gangs are no longer confined to large cities. The FBI states that ga ng activity is rapidly spreading to outlying suburban and rural communities throughout the United States. Types of Gangs Four main types of gangs identified by the U.S. Department of Justice are street gangs, outlaw motorcycle gangs, prison gangs, and military gangs. Gangs and Crime Law enforcement officials say that gangs commit a wide range of crimes, including distribution of drugs, weapons trafficking, drive-by shootings, armed robbery, assault, identity theft, and homicide. In many communities gangs are responsible for as much as 80 percent of crime. Cities with Gang Problems The U. S. Department of Justice has identified Los Angeles, Chicago, and New York as the top three cities for the most gangs and gang-related crime.Reasons for Joining Gangs Young people join gangs for many reasons including the desire to belong to a family-like group, protection from rival gangs, the ability to make money (usually from stealing or selling drugs), prestige, and ready access to drugs. Quitt ing Gangs Whether people are able to leave gangs depends on the particular gang and its rules. Jumping out (being beaten by gang members) is a common way of letting someone out. Some gangs expect their members to remain committed for life and threaten them with death if they try to quit.Fighting Gang Violence In cities throughout the United States, the FBI and state and local law enforcement officials are focusing on the most violent street gangs in an effort to capture their leaders and get them off the streets. Overview â€Å"Gangs are morphing, multiplying, and migrating—entrenching themselves not just in our inner cities but increasingly in our ever-sprawling suburbs and wide-open rural spaces. † —Federal Bureau of Investigation, a law enforcement agency of the U. S. Department of Justice. Gangs and gang-involved kids exist at some level in every community. Certain groups have decided to use violence and retribution, and their acts are affecting all of us. à ¢â‚¬  —Steven D. Strachan, the chief of police of Kent, Washington, a suburb of Seattle. At 16 years old, Melody Ross was thoroughly enjoying life. She had just begun her junior year at Wilson High School in Long Beach, California, where she was an honors student and a pole-vaulter on the track team. She was popular and known for being friendly, kind, and someone who always had a sunny smile on her face.On the evening of October 30, 2009, Melody and her friends went to their school's home ­coming football game. After the game ended, the girls left the stadium and were sitting on the curb in front of the school. Suddenly the loud crack of gunshots filled the air. A feud had broken out between members of rival gangs, and they were shooting at each other—with bystanders caught in the crossfire. By the time the violence ended, three people lay on the ground, wounded and bleeding: two men and Melody. Ambulances rushed them to the hospital, where the men were treated for non-life-threatening injuries.Melody, however, was not so fortunate. She died of a severe bullet wound in her side. Her family and friends were devastated, and as a memorial to her, a classmate named Dylan Vassberg created a Facebook page entitled RIP Melody Ross. â€Å"Every kid our age–we don't ever think we're going to die,† he says. â€Å"We never think that. We think we're going to college and we're going to have a long life and die of old age. Not die because someone decided to shoot a gun. We never think of that. It's not something that crosses our mind ever. Not even fathomable, really. 1 How Serious a Problem Are Gangs? Although the precise number of gangs and gang members (known as gangbangers) is not known, the U. S. Department of Justice makes estimates based on information it receives from state and local law enforcement officials. In January 2009 the Justice Department's National Gang Intelligence Center released a report entitled National Gang Threat As sessment 2009. The report states that more than 20,000 violent gangs with a total of approximately 1 million members were criminally active in the United States as of September 2008.The report's authors state that â€Å"gangs pose a serious threat to public safety. † They warn that throughout the country, gang activity is rapidly spreading from large cities to outlying suburban and rural areas. This, they predict, will cause gang-related violent crime to remain at high levels and likely increase. They write: â€Å"As these gangs encounter resistance from local gangs or other drug distributors in these communities, an increase in violent incidents such as assaults, drive-by shootings, and homicides can be expected. â€Å"2 The Evolution of GangsNo one knows exactly when gangs first formed, but they are often assumed to have been around for centuries. According to Lou Savelli, who is a retired New York City police sergeant and cofounder of the East Coast Gang Investigators As sociation, the word thug dates back to India during the 1200s. It is derived from â€Å"Thugz,† an Indian word that referred to a gang of criminals who traveled throughout the country terrorizing towns. Savelli adds that like gangs today, the Thugz had their own symbols, hand signs, slang language, and rituals.Gang activity is thought to have begun in the United States early in the country's history. Journalist Ed Grabianowski explains: â€Å"Criminal gangs have certainly been around as long as crime itself—it doesn't take a criminal mastermind to realize there is strength in numbers. The urbanization that accompanied the Industrial Revolution gave rise to the modern street gang. â€Å"3 Throughout the 1800s, as more people immigrated to America from other countries, gangs such as the Monk Eastman Gang and Five Points Gang formed and terrorized the streets of New York.But it was the 1920s that ushered in the heyday of gang activity in the United States because of a n otorious gangster named Al Capone, also called Scarface. This was a time known as Prohibition, when the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution made the sale or distribution of alcohol illegal. Supporters hoped the legislation would transform American society for the better, but its effects were quite different from what they expected. Once alcohol was no longer legally available, criminal gangs began to distribute it on the black market.These gangs developed rapidly and continued to grow in power, which caused a steep rise in violent crime. Capone and his gang of criminals were responsible for a wave of violence in the Chicago area during the 1920s and 1930s. Savelli says this led to his becoming known as most violent gangster in Chicago and perhaps in all of the United States. Capone's reputation spread far and wide, and his actions strongly influenced the activities of would-be gangsters throughout the country. By the time Prohibition ended in 1933, gangs had become entrenched t hroughout the country and were widely known for their connections with violent crime.During the 1950s gang-related crime was rampant in a number of U. S. cities, including Los Angeles, Chicago, and New York, and it was steadily growing. Over the following decades gangs became better organized and continued to expand their activities from cities into neighboring communities, as the Justice Department explains: â€Å"The gang members who migrated from urban areas often formed new, neighborhood-based local gangs. These local gangs generally controlled their territories through violence and intimidation. 4 Gang membership—and associated violent crime—continued to grow throughout the rest of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first. Street Gangs and Motorcycle Outlaws Gangs often differ significantly from one another based on membership requirements, structure, and the ages and ethnicity of the members. Two main types that have been identified by law enforcement off icials are street gangs and outlaw motorcycle gangs. The Justice Department says that street gangs pose a considerable threat to communities because they are the largest group and also control the greatest geographical area. Therefore,† Justice Department authorities explain, criminal activities such as violence and drug trafficking perpetrated by street gangs pose the greatest threat. The threat becomes magnified as national- and regional-level street gangs migrate from urban areas to suburban and rural communities, expanding their influence in most regions and broadening their presence outside the United States to develop associations with . . . criminal organizations in Mexico, Central America, and Canada. 5Most street gangs are local-level gangs that operate in single locations while regional-level street gangs are more organized and larger. Some of the largest and most violent street gangs are Hispanic gangs such as MS ­13, 18th Street, Surenos, and Almighty Latin King and Queen Nation (Latin Kings) and the predominately African American gangs Bloods, Crips, and Black P. Stone Nation. Asian gangs such as the Asian Boyz are also developing a reputation as a result of their links to drug trafficking and violent crimes. Though less common than gangs of other racial and ethnic groups, white gangs also pose a threat.The white supremacist street gang Nazi Low-riders has a growing presence in Southern California, Arizona, Colorado, Florida, and Illinois, and members have been connected with a number of racially motivated violent crimes. Outlaw motorcycle gangs also pose a significant threat because they engage in numerous criminal activities, such as trafficking in weapons and drugs, and often commit violent crimes. State and local law enforcement agencies have identified as many as 520 outlaw motorcycle gangs with an estimated total of 20,000 members of various races and ethnicities.The motorcycle gangs that the FBI considers the greatest threat because of criminal activities are the Sons of Silence, Bandidos, Mongols, Hells Angels, and Outlaws. Gangs Behind Bars Just because people are incarcerated, and even sentenced to life in prison, does not necessarily prevent them from engaging in gang activities. According to the Justice Department, prison gangs are highly structured criminal networks that are active within prisons throughout the United States. It adds that as of September 2008, more than 147,000 documented gang members were incarcerated in federal, state, and local correctional facilities.One state where this is a particularly serious problem is Washington. According to a study released in 2009, gang-affiliated inmates are responsible for 43 percent of all violent crimes that are committed in the state's prisons. The report also states that the Crips are the most represented prison gang, with 2,385 inmate members. Also well known for violence behind bars is the white supremacist gang Aryan Brotherhood and the Latino gangs Barrio Azteca and Mexican Mafia. One gang that has been especially violent in Texas prisons is the Texas Syndicate.In February 2007 federal authorities issued indictments for gang members who were suspected of being responsible for as many as 16 murders outside the state's prisons, including a triple slaying in 2003. The indictment states: â€Å"It is understood that members and prospects of the TS may receive a telephone call and instructions to commit a murder . . . at any time. Regardless of the member's friendship or association with the victim, the orders are to be carried out. â€Å"6 Not only are gangs extremely active in prisons, gang members who have been imprisoned are often the gangs' top leaders.According to Sergeant Jeremy Young, who is a supervisor with the Modesto, California, police street crimes unit, the bottom level of a gang's chain of command is made up of gangbangers who are the â€Å"soldiers† on the street; the mid-level is composed of the leaders o f street crews who run the operation; and the top level are the bosses who are often inside prisons. â€Å"The (gang leaders in the) prisons run the street,† he says. â€Å"A lot of things that start in there end up out here. â€Å"7 Criminal Activities Gangs are involved in a wide range of crimes.These include drug distribution, assault, armed robbery, drive-by shootings, auto theft, identity theft, extortion, weapons trafficking, and homicide. In fact, the National Gang Threat Assessment report says that according to law enforcement officials throughout the United States, criminal gangs commit as much as 80 percent of the crime in many communities. Yet the connection between gangs and crime is a controversial is ­sue. According to the Justice Policy Institute, a Washington, D. C. –based think tank that supports alternatives to incarceration, gang members are not responsible for the biggest share of crime in most jurisdictions.In a July 2007 report, the group stat es that many crimes committed by gang members are unrelated to gang activity, and reliable data on the extent of gang crime do not exist. The report's authors write: â€Å"The available evidence indicates that gang members play a relatively small role in the national crime problem. . . . National estimates and local research findings suggest that gang members may be responsible for fewer than one in 10 homicides; fewer than one in 16 violent offenses; and fewer than one in 20 serious . . . crimes. â€Å"8 Gang-Infested CitiesAlthough gangs have a presence in communities all over the United States, the National Gang Center says that the three cities with the most gangs and worst gang-related crime are Los Angeles, Chicago, and New York. According to John S. Pistole, who is the deputy director of the FBI, Los Angeles is â€Å"ground zero for modern gang activity,† with over 400 gangs and an estimated 40,000 gang members. â€Å"Many gangs were born here, a generation ago,â₠¬  he says. â€Å"But they are no longer limited to Los Angeles. Like a cancer, gangs are spreading to communities across America. â€Å"9Two other California cities where gang-related crime is increasing are San Diego, where gang-related homicides rose 56 percent between 2006 and 2007, and Salinas, where gang-related homicides increased 125 percent during that same period of time. Gangs are also a serious problem in Hartford, Connecticut, and Camden, New Jersey. And Pistole adds that gangs are becoming more active in many other cities including Baltimore, Houston, Washington, D. C. , Denver, Atlanta, Indianapolis, New Orleans, and Omaha, Nebraska. High-Tech Gangbanging The Internet has opened up a whole new way for gangbangers to recruit new members.As a February 2007 ABC News report states: â€Å"By posting online content that glorifies the thug lifestyle, gangs are using the Web to recruit—some using children as young as 8 years old as part of the on ­line recruiting process, known as ‘Net Banging. ‘†10 Sometimes rival gang members spar with each other online, proudly displaying their gang colors, tattoos, and gang hand signs in photos. They also use the Internet to schedule fights with each other as well as brag about crimes that they have committed. By monitoring these sites, federal and state law enforcement officials can track gang activity.Cell phones also play a crucial role in gang operations. Gangbangers communicate with each other by sending text messages, and it is not uncommon for them to use multiple phones that they discard after they have completed criminal operations such as drug trafficking. The Justice Department offers an example: â€Å"The leader of an African American street gang operating on the north side of Milwaukee used more than 20 cell phones to coordinate drug-related activities of the gang: most were prepaid phones that the leader routinely discarded and replaced. 11 Why Do Young People Join Gangs ? Law enforcement professionals say that the issue of why kids join gangs is complex. According to the Justice Policy Institute, no single risk factor or set of factors can accurately predict which young people will become gang members. One of the most common reasons kids join gangs is that they are from broken homes and desperately want to be part of a family-like group, and they perceive gangs as being able to provide that. Brandon Robinson grew up in a housing project in Kansas City, Missouri.As a participant in a 2007 survey about gangs, he told interviewers that many of those who join share the commonality of being from poverty-stricken, dysfunctional backgrounds. â€Å"You got family members on crack and you ain't eating right,† he says. â€Å"Everybody's hungry. â€Å"12 According to Robinson, gang members look out for each other, help feed each other, and stick up for each other, much like a family would. â€Å"That's when you start loving your street,†13 he says.Other reasons for joining gangs include the lure of having money to spend (from stealing or selling drugs), easy access to drugs, and protection from the dangers of the street and rival gangs. Yet many criminal justice experts say that being part of a gang does not keep kids safer at all. In fact, studies have shown that young people who are involved with gangs have a markedly higher likelihood of being injured or killed than those who are not gang-affiliated. Girl Gangs Traditionally, gangs have been dominated by males and that is still true today.But the Justice Department states that female involvement in gangs is on the upswing. A May 2008 study by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention found that in high-crime neighborhoods nearly 30 percent of girls surveyed claimed that they were members of gangs. The report ranked â€Å"young females as the fastest growing offenders in the national juvenile justice population. â€Å"14 One city that has experienced growing problems with girl gangs is Flint, Michigan. Gina Nyovane, a 22-year-old graduate of Flint Northwestern High School, has observed girl gangs in her former school and throughout the city.She says that these gangs are becoming more widespread and more violent, as she explains: â€Å"I hear it all the time. Girls are quick to pull a gun out, faster than a guy. â€Å"15 Over Labor Day weekend in 2009, members of a girl gang called the Goonies followed a car that was carrying members of a rival gang, the Dufflebacks. A young man traveling with the Goonies fired six shots at the other car, killing an 18-year-old male passenger and wounding the female driver. Can People Leave the Gang Life Behind? The common view is that people who join gangs are never allowed to leave them.The Justice Policy Institute says its research has found that gang membership is not a â€Å"one-way street† and that the typical gang member is active for a year or less. The group explains: â€Å"Thi s myth is perpetuated not only by the media but also by gang members who exaggerate the stakes of membership in order to underscore the importance and permanence of their collective bond. â€Å"16 Yet many people say that joining a gang is a lifetime commitment, and the only way someone can leave is by dying or going to prison. Former gang member Hashim Garrett was 15 years old when he was shot six times in the back and legs.Today he struggles to walk and must use forearm crutches because his right leg is paralyzed. In a speech to students at a middle school in 2008, Garrett addressed the realities of gang life: â€Å"They say they're like your family, but your loved ones don't ask much of you. Come home on time, clean up your room, be polite, eat your vegetables. The gang's going to ask more than that. Hold this gun. Hold these drugs. Prove you're wild. Maybe kill somebody. † He adds that most gang members want to quit the gang but are too afraid to do so. If you join the f ootball team and you don't like the coach, you can quit. You can't quit a gang that easy. â€Å"17 Can Gang Violence Be Stopped? Controlling gang proliferation and gang-related crime is one of the most significant challenges facing law enforcement officials every day of the year. Federal agencies such as the FBI and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives have partnered with state and local police departments throughout the United States in an effort to bring down gangs and put an end to their crime sprees.In many cities, the focus is on eliminating the leadership of gang enterprises. According to Pistole, the goal is to do more than just disrupt their activities—it is to â€Å"dismantle them entirely. † He explains: Taking apart a gang is like demolishing a building. Hacking away at individual walls and beams might damage the building, but it doesn't destroy it. But using federal drug and racketeering statutes is akin to dynamiting the foundation. On ce the gang's leadership infrastructure implodes, all members are weakened. It becomes difficult for the group to operate.Eventually, it crumbles. And so our strategy is to prosecute as many gang leaders, members, and associates as possible so there are no pieces left which are large enough to allow the gang to rebuild. 18 How Serious a Problem Are Gangs? â€Å"Following a marked decline from the mid-1990s to the early 2000s, a steady resurgence of gang problems has occurred in recent years. † —James C. Howell, Arlen Egley Jr. , and Christina O'Donnell, research associates with the National Gang Center. â€Å"Wherever MS-13 goes, violence follows.Gang members have carried out beheadings and grenade attacks in Central America and have hacked people with machetes in cities along the East Coast in the United States. † —Jessica M. Vaughan and John D. Feere, policy analysts with the Center for Immigration Studies. For people in many areas of the world, includi ng the United States, gang violence is a harsh reality of life. According to the U. S. Department of Justice, the problem in America is growing worse. The Justice Department estimates that the number of gang members totaled about 1 million as of September 2008, which was an increase from 800,000 in 2005.One reason gangs continue to grow larger and more powerful is that they are fostering relationships with criminal organizations in Mexico, Central America, and Canada. This has led to a proliferation of drugs and weapons being smuggled across the U. S. border as well as an influx of illegal aliens who join gangs. To emphasize the seriousness of America's gang violence, FBI director John Pistole tells the story of a young woman who was working at a Los Angeles outdoor market in September 2007. Her newborn son, Luis, was beside her is his stroller.Members of the 18th Street gang approached one of the market's vendors, telling him that he could not sell his goods in their territory unle ss he paid them rent. He had steadfastly refused to meet their demands in the past, and when he continued to do so at the market, gang members drew their guns and opened fire on him. The man survived, but Luis did not. A stray bullet struck the baby and killed him instantly. Pistole says that this tragic incident is indicative of what is happening throughout the country: â€Å"In too many neighborhoods, too many young people are recruited into gangs.They fall into a life of crime, drugs, and violence. They shoot each other, with no regard to the innocent bystanders caught in the crossfire. Crime and violence are not confined to their cliques, but have a chilling effect on entire communities. â€Å"19 A Ruthlessly Vicious Gang Of all the gangs known to law enforcement, Mara Salvatrucha, or MS ­13, is one of the most violent. It started as a small Los Angeles street gang formed during the 1980s by immigrants from El Salvador. Now, however, it is among the largest and most dangerou s gangs in the United States and Central America.According to the Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), MS-13 has â€Å"mushroomed into the size of a small army† and â€Å"strives to be the most violent and feared gang in the world. â€Å"20 ICE states that MS-13 members have been convicted of murder, assault, extortion, kidnapping, theft, drug dealing, rape, robbery, and other violent crimes. One city that is plagued by the violence of MS-13 is Houston, Texas. Although larger gangs are active in the city, the FBI considers MS-13 to be â€Å"of particular concern because members are often heavily armed and well trained in the use of weapons and assault tactics. 21 In January 2009 MS-13 gang members robbed a Houston beauty salon at gunpoint and sexually assaulted an employee. They warned her not to go to the police, saying that if she did she would regret it. They also threatened the salon owner, telling her that they would kill her if she reported the incide nt, and they demanded that she pay them a weekly protection fee of $100. The salon owner was terrified—but she was also angry. She had seen the same kinds of crimes committed in her native El Salvador, and she was determined to fight to keep them from happening in her adopted country.Even though she feared for her life and the lives of her family members, she went to the FBI and told agents what happened. During that visit she turned over a security surveillance tape that showed the gang members' faces. About a week later the woman had not paid the protection money. In retaliation, two MS-13 gangbangers drove by the salon and sprayed the front door with bullets—but they did not get away with the violent act. Because of the tapes and the salon owner's cooperation, the FBI agents arrested seven members of the gang. As one agent explains: â€Å"This case is proof that victims of crime should not suffer in silence. He adds that the salon owner, who was placed in protectiv e custody by the FBI, â€Å"was courageous to stand up to gang members, and as a result those gang members are now in jail. â€Å"22 Violent Communities Located on the shores of Lake Michigan, Chicago is often called one of America's most beautiful cities. With its tree-lined neighborhoods of stately brownstone homes, the â€Å"Magnificent Mile† shopping district, prolific theaters and restaurants, and world-renowned museums, the city attracts tourists from many different countries—yet it also has a dark and dangerous side.Law enforcement officials estimate that 50 to 60 gangs are active in Chicago and that together, they have as many as 30,000 members. Armed gangbangers roam the streets of the South Side of Chicago, committing crimes and terrorizing the people who live there. A chilling testament to this gang violence is evident in one of the city's lesser-known monuments: an arrangement of more than 150 landscaping stones, each bearing the name of a school-age chil d killed by gang violence since 2007. Police superintendent Jody Weis states that Chicago youth have become increasingly more violent over the years.He explains: â€Å"There's simply too many gangs, too many guns and too many drugs on the streets. We've got a problem with some of our young people . . . resorting to use of weapons and violence to solve any type of conflicts they may have. â€Å"23 Chicago has had a problem with gang violence for many years, but public outrage was sparked in 2007 when a 16-year-old honors student named Blair Holt was killed. Holt, who was not involved with a gang, was riding in a city bus with a friend when members of rival gangs started shooting at each other. He attempted to shield his friend by pushing her down into a seat.His heroic act saved her life, but he was fatally shot in the stomach. Afterward, his father, a Chicago police officer, expressed his despair and frustration over gangs who do not think twice about killing people: â€Å"You wo nder where it comes from. What causes a child to wantonly and blatantly hatch such an ill-conceived plan? To go out and do something like this? What makes them do it? Where is this coming from? What are the influences? â€Å"24 Chicago is far from alone in its ongoing struggle with gang violence. It is prevalent in communities all over the country.In South Carolina, for instance, the rate of gang violence has risen nearly 1,000 percent over the past decade, with the highest number of incidents reported in Colleton County. Although Colleton County is home to just 38,000 people, law enforcement investigators have identified about 20 active gangs with an estimated total of 400 members. According to Sheriff George Malone, â€Å"The violence in Colleton County is out of control. â€Å"25 One incident occurred in November 2009 in the small town of Walterboro. A group of people were playing cards in the front yard of their home when a car pulled up and suddenly opened fire on the group. A 20-month-old toddler and 2 adults were killed; 6 others were injured. Gangs in the Military According to the Justice Department, gang activity is on the upswing in the military. Members of every major street gang and some outlaw motorcycle gangs have been identified on both domestic and international military bases. One incident involved three soldiers stationed in Alaska who were charged with murder after killing a civilian as they shot at members of a rival gang. Another involved a soldier who was arrested in October 2007 for the gang-related shooting of five people in Oklahoma.A 2009 Yale Law Journal article describes one case in which a marine sergeant who was a gang member â€Å"shot his commanding officer and executive officer—both lieutenant colonels—and threatened to continue killing officers until his fellow gang members were released from confinement. â€Å"26 While on active duty, gang members may abuse their security privileges and access to weapons and other military equipment to further gang activities. For instance, military gang members may take advantage of their positions to engage in criminal acts such as trafficking illicit drugs or weapons.According to the same article, a gang member in the army who was stationed in Iraq smuggled home four AK ­47 assault rifles that were later used to commit multiple bank robberies. After gang members have been discharged from the military, they remain a serious threat to society. They can use their combat skills against rival gangs and also teach those skills to others. The Justice Department says that this poses a â€Å"potentially significant threat,† as it explains: â€Å"Gang members with military training pose a unique threat to law enforcement personnel because of the distinctive military skills that they possess . . especially if gang members trained in weapons, tactics, and planning pass this instruction on to other gang members. â€Å"27 The Justice Department adds th at such military training could ultimately result in more organized, sophisticated, and dangerous gangs as well as an increase of deadly assaults on law enforcement officers. Incarcerated Gangs Incarcerated gang members are every bit as threatening as those who are on the streets because gang members who are behind bars often control crimes that are committed outside of prison.One example is the Mexican Mafia (also known as the Eme), a violent prison gang with as many as 75,000 members. The incarcerated leaders rule over associates who are given the authority to order crimes in neighborhoods or cities. Tony Rafael, the author of the book The Mexican Mafia, explains: â€Å"Street gangsters very often are puppets of the big homies locked up in prison. The proof is overwhelming and plays itself out on an almost daily basis in almost every neighborhood in Southern California. â€Å"28Members of the Mexican Mafia and their associates have been connected with kidnapping, murder, drug tr afficking, and extortion, among other crimes. According to Rafael, the gang has grown into a large, powerful, and violent organization. He writes: â€Å"It has far-reaching intelligence and communications systems, as well as a standing army of thousands of street soldiers. â€Å"29 Rafael adds that the Mexican Mafia continues to expand its power over street crime: â€Å"Most neighborhoods in Southern California that have a strong Hispanic street gang presence feel the power of the Mexican Mafia.It took local and state law enforcement over twenty years from the founding of the Mexican Mafia to recognize its influence on the streets. It took another two decades for federal law enforcement to address the Eme as a significant criminal organization. â€Å"30 Aside from controlling crime on the streets, these gangs are also involved in violent acts inside prisons. This is a serious problem in Ohio, where attacks in state prisons have doubled from nearly 500 in 2005 to more than 1,000 during 2008.Corrections officials say that part of the increase in violence is due to an influx of gangs such as the Heartless Felons, who are known for attacking prisoners in bands of six or more. Some of the worst violence has broken out at Mansfield Reformatory, a prison built for 1,536 inmates that now houses 2,475–161 percent over capacity. â€Å"These are dangerous times,† says Shirley Pope, the director of the state's Correctional Institutional Inspection Committee. â€Å"Mansfield is overcrowded. It is understaffed and on top of that, it has this peculiar group of younger inmates who have been described as incredibly vicious.An Ongoing Problem Whether they are terrorizing people in neighborhoods, committing crimes while in the military, or reigning over street crime from inside prisons, gangs are a significant problem all over the United States. Law enforcement officials report that gangs now have a presence in every U. S. state and the District of Columbia, a nd gang membership appears to be growing. According to reports from local, state, and federal authorities, there is no sign that this situation will change anytime in the near future.